Chapter1
EarlySocieties
Inthissection,wewillreadabouttwothemesrelatingtoearlysocieties.Thefirst
isaboutthebeginningsofhumanexistence,fromtheremotepast,millionsofyears
ago.YouwilllearnhowhumansfirstemergedinAfricaandhowarchaeologists
havestudiedtheseearlyphasesofhistoryfromremainsofbonesandstonetools.
Archaeologistshave made attempts to reconstruct the livesof early people –to
findoutaboutthesheltersinwhichtheylived,thefoodtheyatebygatheringplant
produce andhuntinganimals,and the waysinwhich theyexpressedthemselves.
Otherimportantdevelopmentsincludetheuseoffireandoflanguage.And,finally,
youwillseewhetherthelivesofpeoplewholivebyhuntingandgatheringtoday
canhelpustounderstandthepast.
Thesecondthemedealswithsomeoftheearliestcities–thoseofMesopotamia,
present-day Iraq. These cities developed around temples, and were centres of
long-distancetrade.Archaeologicalevidence–remainsofoldsettlements–and
anabundanceofwrittenmaterialareusedtoreconstructthelivesofthedifferent
people who lived there – craftspeople, scribes, labourers, priests, kings and
queens.Youwillnoticehowpastoralpeopleplayedanimportantroleinsomeof
thesetowns.Aquestiontothinkaboutiswhetherthemanyactivitiesthatwenton
incitieswouldhavebeenpossibleifwritinghadnotdeveloped.
Youmaywonderastohowpeoplewhoformillionsofyearshadlivedinforests,
in caves or temporary shelters began to eventually live in villages and cities.
Well,thestoryisalongoneandisrelatedtoseveraldevelopmentsthattookplace
atleast5,000yearsbeforetheestablishmentofthefirstcities.
Oneofthemostfar-reachingchangeswasthegradualshiftfromnomadiclifeto
settled agriculture, which began around 10,000 years ago. As you will see in
Theme1,priortotheadoptionofagriculture,peoplehadgatheredplantproduce
as a source of food. Slowly, they learnt more about different kinds of plants
wheretheygrew,theseasonswhentheyborefruitandsoon.Fromthis,theylearnt
togrowplants.InWestAsia,wheatandbarley,peasandvariouskindsofpulses
weregrown. In East andSoutheast Asia, the cropsthatgreweasily were millet
andrice.MilletwasalsogrowninAfrica.Aroundthesametime,peoplelearnt
how to domesticate animals such as sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey. Plant
fibressuchascottonandflax,andanimalfibressuchaswoolwerenowwoven
intocloth.Somewhatlater,about5,000yearsago,domesticatedanimalssuchas
cattleanddonkeyswereharnessedtoploughsandcarts.
Thesedevelopmentsledtootherchangesaswell.Whenpeoplegrewcrops,they
hadtostayinthesameplacetillthecropsripened.So,settledlifebecamemore
common.Andwiththat,peoplebuiltmorepermanentstructuresinwhichtolive.
Thiswasalsothetimewhensomecommunitieslearnthowtomakeearthenpots.
These were used to store grain and other produce, and to prepare and cook a
variety of foods made from the new grains that werecultivated.In fact, a great
dealofattentionwasgiventoprocessingfoodstomakethemtastyanddigestible.
Theway stonetoolsweremadealsochanged.Whileearliermethods of making
toolscontinued,sometoolsandequipmentwerenowsmoothenedandpolishedby
anelaborateprocessofgrinding.Newequipmentincludedmortarsandpestlesfor
preparinggrain,aswellasstoneaxesandhoes,whichwereusedtoclearlandfor
cultivation,aswellasfordiggingtheearthtosowseeds.
In some areas, people learnt to tap the ores of metals such as copper and tin.
Sometimes,copperoreswerecollectedandusedfortheirdistinctivebluish-green
colour.Thispreparedthewayforthemoreextensiveuseofmetalforjewellery
andfortoolssubsequently.
There was also a growing familiarity with other kinds of produce from distant
lands (and seas). This included wood, stones, including precious and semi-
precious stones, metals and shell, and hardened volcanic lava. Clearly, people
weregoingfromplacetoplace,carryinggoodsandideaswiththem.
With increasing trade, the growth of villages and towns, and the movements of
people,inplaceofthesmallcommunitiesofearlypeopletherenowgrewsmall
states. While these changestook place slowly, over several thousand years, the
pace quickened with the growth of the first cities. Also, the changes had far-
reachingconsequences.Somescholarshavedescribedthisasarevolution,asthe
lives of people were probably transformed beyond recognition. Look out for
continuities and changes as you explore these two contrasting themes in early
history.
Remembertoo,thatwehaveselectedonlysomeexamplesofearlysocietiesfor
detailed study. There were other kinds of early societies, including farming
communities and pastoral peoples. And there were other peoples who were
hunter-gatherersaswellascitydwellers,apartfromtheexamplesselected.
TimelineI
(6MYAto1BCE)
HowtoReadTimelines
Youwillfindatimelinelikethisoneineverysection.
Eachofthesewillindicatesomeofthemajorprocessesandeventsinworldhistory.
Asyoustudythetimelines,remember—
•Processesthroughwhichordinarywomen andmen haveshapedhistory arefarmore difficulttodate
thaneventssuchasawarbetweenkings.
•Somedatesmayindicatethebeginningofaprocess,orwhenitreachesmaturation.
•Historiansareconstantlyrevisingdatesinthelightofnewevidence,ornewwaysofassessingolddata.
•Whilewehavedividedthetimelinesonageographicalbasisasamatterofconvenience,actualhistorical
developmentsoftentranscendthesedivisions.
•Also,thereisachronologicaloverlapinhistoricalprocesses.
•Onlysomelandmarksinhumanhistoryhavebeenshownhere–wehavehighlightedtheprocessesdealt
withinthethemesthatfollow,whichalsohaveseparatetimelines.
•Whereveryouseea*,youwillalsofindanillustrationrelatedtothedatealongthecolumn.
•Blankspacesdonotmeanthatnothingwashappeningsometimestheseindicatethatwedonotasyet
knowwhatwashappening.
•YouwillbelearningmoreaboutSouthAsianhistoryingeneralandIndianhistoryinparticularnextyear.
ThedatesselectedforSouthAsiaareonlyindicativeofsomeofthedevelopmentsinthesubcontinent.
Thistimelinefocusesontheemergenceofhumansandthedomesticationofplants
andanimals.Ithighlightssomemajortechnologicaldevelopmentssuchastheuse
offire,metals,ploughagricultureandthewheel.Otherprocessesthatareshown
includetheemergenceofcitiesandtheuseofwriting.Youwillalsofindmention
ofsomeoftheearliestempires–athemethatwillbedevelopedinTimelineII.
Theme1
FROMTHEBEGINNINGOFTIME
Thischaptertracesthebeginningofhumanexistence.Itwas5.6millionyearsago
(written as mya) that the first human-like creatures appeared on the earths
surface. After this, several forms of humans emerged and then became extinct.
Human beings resembling us (henceforth referred to as modern humans’)
originated about 160,000 years ago. During this long period of human history,
peopleobtainedfoodbyeitherscavengingorhuntinganimalsandgatheringplant
produce.Theyalsolearnthowtomakestonetoolsandtocommunicatewitheach
other.
Although other ways of obtaining food were adopted later, hunting-gathering
continued. Even today there are hunter-gatherer societies in some parts of the
world. This makes us wonder whether the lifestyles of present-day hunter-
gathererscantellusanythingaboutthepast.
Fossilsaretheremainsorimpressionsofaveryoldplant,animalorhuman
whichhaveturnedintostone.Theseareoftenembeddedinrock,andarethus
preservedformillionsofyears.
Species isagroup of organismsthatcan breedto produce fertileoffspring.
Membersofonespeciescannotmatewiththoseofotherspeciestoproduce
fertileoffspring.
Discoveriesofhumanfossils,stonetoolsandcavepaintingshelpustounderstand
earlyhumanhistory.Eachofthesediscoverieshasahistoryofitsown.Veryoften,
whensuchfindswerefirstmade,mostscholarsrefusedtoacceptthatthesefossils
weretheremainsofearlyhumans.Theywerealsoscepticalabouttheabilityof
earlyhumanstomakestonetoolsorpaint.Itwasonlyoveraperiodoftimethat
thetruesignificanceofthesefindswasrealised.
Theevidenceforhumanevolutioncomesfromfossilsofspeciesofhumanswhich
havebecomeextinct.Fossilscanbedatedeitherthroughdirectchemicalanalysis
or indirectly by dating the sediments in which they areburied.Oncefossilsare
dated,asequenceofhumanevolutioncanbeworkedout.
Whensuchdiscoverieswerefirstmade,about200yearsago,manyscholarswere
often reluctant to accept that fossils and other finds including stone tools and
paintings were actually connected with early forms of humans. This reluctance
generallystemmedfromtheirbeliefintheOldTestamentoftheBible,according
towhichhumanoriginwasregardedasanactofCreationbyGod.
Forinstance,inAugust1856,workmenwhowerequarryingforlimestoneinthe
Neandervalley(seeMap2,p.18),agorgeneartheGermancityofDusseldorf,
found a skull and some skeletal fragments. These were handed over to Carl
Fuhlrott,alocalschoolmasterandnaturalhistorian,whorealisedthattheydidnot
belongtoamodernhuman.Hethenmadeaplastercastoftheskullandsentitto
HermanSchaaffhausen,aprofessorofanatomyatBonnUniversity.Thefollowing
yeartheyjointlypublishedapaper,claimingthatthisskullrepresentedaformof
humanthatwasextinct.Atthattime,scholarsdidnotacceptthisviewandinstead
declaredthattheskullbelongedtoapersonofmorerecenttimes.
Recoveringfossils
Apainstakingprocess.Thepreciselocationoffindsisimportantfordating.
Shows the equipment used to record the location of finds. The square frame to the left of the
archaeologist is a grid divided into 10 cm squares. Placing it over the find spot helps to record the
horizontalpositionofthefind.Thetriangularapparatustotherightisusedtorecordtheverticalposition.
Showshowafossilfragmentisrecoveredfromthesurroundingstone,inthiscaseavarietyoflimestone,
inwhichitisembedded.Asyoucansee,thisrequiresskillandpatience.
24 November 1859, when Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was
published,markedalandmark inthe studyofevolution.All1,250copiesofthe
first print weresold outthesame day. Darwin argued thathumans hadevolved
fromanimalsalongtimeago.
ACTIVITY1
Most religions have stories about the creation of human beings
which often do not correspond with scientific discoveries. Find
out about some of these and compare them with the history of
humanevolutionasdiscussedinthischapter.
TheskullofNeanderthalman.Someofthosewhodismissedtheantiquityoftheskullregardedit
as‘brutishorthatofa‘pathologicalidiot’.
TheStoryofHumanEvolution
(a)ThePrecursorsofModernHumanBeings
Lookatthesefourskulls.
Abelongstoanape.
BbelongstoaspeciesknownasAustralopithecus(seebelow).
CbelongstoaspeciesknownasHomoerectus(literally‘uprightman’).
Dbelongstoa speciesknownasHomosapiens (literally ‘thinking/wiseman’}to whichallpresent-day
humanbeingsbelong.
List as many similarities and differences that you notice, looking carefully at the brain case, jaws and
teeth.
Thedifferencesthatyounoticeintheskullsshownintheillustrationaresomeof
thechangesthat came about as a result of human evolution. Thestory of human
evolution is enormously long, and somewhat complicated. There are also many
unansweredquestions,andnewdataoftenleadtoarevisionandmodificationof
earlier understandings. Let us look at some of the developments and their
implicationsmoreclosely.
It is possible to trace these developments back to between 36 and 24 mya. We
sometimes find it difficult to conceptualise such long spans of time. If you
considerapage of yourbook torepresent 10,000years,initself avast span of
time, 10pages would represent100,000 years, and a 100pageswould equal 1
millionyears.
Tothinkof36millionyears,youwouldhavetoimagineabook3,600pageslong!
That was when primates, a category of mammals, emerged in Asia and Africa.
Subsequently, by about 24 mya, there emerged a subgroup amongst primates,
called hominoids. This included apes. And, much later, about 5.6 mya, we find
evidenceofthefirsthominids.
Primates are a subgroup of a larger group of mammals. They include monkeys,
apes and humans. They have body hair, a relatively long gestation period
following birth, mammary glands, different types of teeth, and the ability to
maintainaconstantbodytemperature.
Whilehominidshaveevolvedfromhominoidsandsharecertaincommonfeatures,
there are major differences as well. Hominoids have a smaller brain than
hominids.Theyarequadrupeds,walkingonallfours,butwithflexibleforelimbs.
Hominids,bycontrast,haveanuprightpostureandbipedallocomotion(walking
on two feet). There are also marked differences in the hand, which enables the
making and use of tools. We will examine the kinds of tools made and their
significancemorecloselylater.
TwolinesofevidencesuggestanAfricanoriginforhominids.First,itisthegroup
of African apes that are most closely related to hominids. Second, the earliest
hominidfossils,whichbelongtothegenusAustralopithecus,havebeenfoundin
East Africa and date back to about 5.6 mya. In contrast, fossils found outside
Africaarenoolderthan1.8millionyears.
Theevolutionofthehand
A
Ashowstheprecisiongripofthechimpanzee.
Bshowsthepowergripofthehumanhand.
Cshowstheprecisiongripofthehominid.
Thedevelopmentofthepowergripprobablyprecededtheprecisiongrip.
Comparetheprecisiongripofthechimpanzeewiththatofthehumanhand.
Makealistofthethingsyoudousingaprecisiongrip.
Whatarethethingsyoudousingapowergrip?
Hominids belong to a family known asHominidae, which includes allformsof
human beings. The distinctive characteristics of hominids include a large brain
size,uprightposture,bipedallocomotionandspecialisationofthehand.
Hominids are further subdivided into branches, known as genus, of which
AustralopithecusandHomoareimportant.Eachoftheseinturnincludesseveral
species. The major differences between Australopithecus and Homo relate to
brainsize,jawsandteeth.
Theformerhasasmallerbrainsize,heavierjawsandlargerteeththanthelatter.
VirtuallyallthenamesgivenbyscientiststospeciesarederivedfromLatinand
Greekwords.Forinstance,thenameAustralopithecuscomesfromaLatinword,
‘austral’, meaning southern and a Greek word, ‘pithekos’, meaning ape.’ The
namewasgivenbecausethisearliestformofhumansstillretainedmanyfeatures
ofanape,suchasarelativelysmallbrainsizeincomparisontoHomo,largeback
teeth and limiteddexterity of thehands.Upright walking was alsorestricted, as
theystillspentalotoftimeontrees.Theyretainedcharacteristics(suchaslong
forelimbs,curvedhandandfootbonesandmobileanklejoints)suitedtolifeon
trees.
Hominoids are different from monkeys in a number of ways. They have a
largerbodyanddonothaveatail.Besides,thereisalongerperiodofinfant
developmentanddependencyamongsthominoids.
ThisisaviewoftheOlduvaiGorgeintheRiftValley,EastAfrica(seeMap1b,p.14),oneoftheareas
fromwhichtracesofearlyhumanhistoryhavebeenrecovered.Noticethedifferentlevelsofearthatthe
centreofthephotograph.Eachoftheserepresentsadistinctgeologicalphase.
Over time, as tool making and long-distance walking increased, many human
characteristicsalsodeveloped.
TheDiscoveryofAustralopithecus,OlduvaiGorge,
July1959
The Olduvai Gorge (see p. 14) was first ‘discovered in the early twentieth century by a German
butterfly collector. However, Olduvai has come to be identified with Mary and Louis Leakey, who
workedhereforover40years.ItwasMaryLeakeywhodirectedarchaeologicalexcavationsatOlduvai
andLaetoliandshemadesomeofthemostexcitingdiscoveries.ThisiswhatLouisLeakeywroteabout
oneoftheirmostremarkablefinds:
‘That morning I woke with a headache and a slight fever. Reluctantly, I agreed to spend the day in
camp.Withoneofusoutofcommission,itwasevenmorevitalfortheothertocontinuethework,forour
precariousseven-weekseasonwasrunningout.SoMarydepartedforthediggingswithSallyandToots
[twooftheirdogs]intheLand-Rover[ajeep-likevehicle],andIsettledbacktoarestlessdayoff.
Some time later perhaps I dozed off I heard the Land-Rover coming up fast to camp. I had a
momentaryvisionofMarystungbyoneofourhundredsofresidentscorpionsorbittenbyasnakethat
hadslippedpastthedogs.
TheLand-Roverrattledtoastop,andIheardMarysvoicecallingoverandover:I’vegothim!I’vegot
him!I’vegothim!”Stillgroggyfromtheheadache,Icouldn’tmakeherout.Gotwhat?Areyouhurt?
Iasked.Him,theman!Ourman,Marysaid.Theonewe’vebeenlookingfor23years.Comequick,
I’vefoundhisteeth!”’
From‘FindingtheWorldsEarliestMan’,byL.S.B.Leakey,NationalGeographic,118(September
1960).
Theremainsofearlyhumanshavebeenclassifiedintodifferentspecies.Theseare
oftendistinguishedfromoneanotheronthebasisofdifferencesinbonestructure.
Forinstance,speciesofearlyhumansaredifferentiatedintermsoftheirskullsize
and distinctive jaws (see illustration on p.10). These characteristics may have
evolvedduetowhathasbeencalledthepositivefeedbackmechanism.
Thepositivefeedbackmechanism
Thearrowspointingtowardsaboxindicatetheinfluencesthatshapedthatparticulardevelopment.
Thearrowspointingawayfromaboxindicatehowdevelopmentsmentionedintheboxinfluencedother
processes.
Forexample,bipedalismenabledhandstobefreedforcarryinginfantsorobjects.
In turn, as hands were used more and more, upright walking gradually became
moreefficient.Apartfromtheadvantageoffreeinghandsforvarioususes,farless
energyisconsumedwhilewalkingascomparedtothemovementofaquadruped.
However, the advantage in terms of saving energy is reversed while running.
Thereisindirectevidenceofbipedalismasearlyas3.6mya.Thiscomesfromthe
fossilisedhominidfootprintsatLaetoli,Tanzania(seeSectioncover).Fossillimb
bones recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia provide more direct evidence of
bipedalism.
Around 2.5 mya, with the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice Age), when
large parts of the earth were covered with snow, there were major changes in
climateand vegetation. Duetothereduction intemperaturesaswellasrainfall,
grassland areas expanded at the expense of forests, leading to the gradual
extinctionoftheearlyformsofAustralopithecus(thatwereadaptedtoforests)and
the replacement by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions.
AmongtheseweretheearliestrepresentativesofthegenusHomo.
Homo is a Latin word, meaning man, although there were women as well!
ScientistsdistinguishamongstseveraltypesofHomo.Thenamesassignedtothese
species are derived from what are regarded as their typical characteristics. So
fossilsareclassifiedasHomohabilis(thetoolmaker),Homoerectus(theupright
man),andHomosapiens(thewiseorthinkingman).
FossilsofHomohabilishavebeendiscoveredatOmoinEthiopiaandatOlduvai
GorgeinTanzania.TheearliestfossilsofHomoerectushavebeenfoundbothin
AfricaandAsia:KoobiForaandwestTurkana,Kenya,ModjokertoandSangiran,
Java.AsthefindsinAsiabelongtoalaterdatethanthoseinAfrica,itislikely
that hominids migrated from East Africa to southern and northern Africa, to
southernandnorth-easternAsia,andperhapstoEurope,sometimebetween2and
1.5mya.Thisspeciessurvivedfornearlyamillionyears.
Map1(a):Africa
Map1(b):TheEastAfricanRiftValley
TheRiftValley,EastAfrica.
In some instances, the names for fossils are derived from the places where the
firstfossilsofaparticulartypewerefound.SofossilsfoundinHeidelberg,acity
inGermany,werecalledHomoheidelbergensis,whilethosefoundintheNeander
valley(seep.18)werecategorisedasHomoneanderthalensis.
The earliest fossils from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo
neanderthalensis. Both belong to the species of archaic (that is, old) Homo
sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide
distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals
occupiedEuropeandwesternand CentralAsiafrom roughly130,000to35,000
yearsago.TheydisappearedabruptlyinwesternEuropearound35,000yearsago.
Ingeneral,comparedwithAustralopithecus,Homohavealargerbrain,jawswith
a reduced outward protrusion and smaller teeth (see illustration on p. 10). An
increaseinbrainsize isassociatedwith moreintelligenceandabettermemory.
Thechangesinthejawsandteethwereprobablyrelatedtodifferencesindietary
habits.
ACTIVITY2
Plotthechangesindicatedinthechartaboveonanoutlinemapoftheworld.
Usedifferentcoloursforthefourtimebrackets.Listthecontinentswhereyou
use(a)asinglecolour,(b)twocolours,(c)morethantwocolours.
TheStoryofHumanEvolution
(b)ModernHumanBeings
If you look at this chart, you will notice that some of the earliest evidence for
HomosapienshasbeenfoundindifferentpartsofAfrica.Thisraisesthequestion
ofthecentreofhumanorigin.Wasthereasinglecentreorwerethereseveral?
Theissueoftheplaceoforiginofmodernhumanshasbeenmuchdebated.Two
totally divergent views have been expounded, one advocating the regional
continuity model (with multiple regions of origin), the other the replacement
model(withasingleorigininAfrica).
Accordingtotheregionalcontinuitymodel,thearchaicHomosapiensindifferent
regions gradually evolved at different rates into modern humans, and hence the
variationinthefirstappearanceofmodernhumansindifferentpartsoftheworld.
Theargumentisbasedontheregionaldifferencesinthe features of present-day
humans.Accordingtothosewhoadvocatethisview,thesedissimilaritiesaredue
todifferencesbetweenthepre-existingHomoerectusandHomoheidelbergensis
populationsthatoccupiedthesameregions.
TheReplacementandRegionalContinuityModels
The replacement model visualises the complete replacement everywhere of all
older forms of humans with modern humans. In support of this view is the
evidence of the genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans. Those
whosuggestthisarguethattheenormoussimilarityamongstmodernhumansisdue
to their descent from a population that originated in a single region, which is
Africa. The evidence of the earliest fossils of modern humans (from Omo in
Ethiopia) also supports the replacement model. Scholars who hold this view
suggestthatthephysicaldifferencesobservedtodayamongmodernhumansarethe
result of adaptation (over a span of thousands of years) by populations who
migratedtotheparticularregionswheretheyfinallysettleddown.
EarlyHumans:WaysofObtainingFood
Sofar,wehavebeenconsideringtheevidenceofskeletalremainsandseeinghow
these have been used to reconstruct the histories of the movements of peoples
acrosscontinents.But,thereareother,moreroutineaspectsofhumanlifeaswell.
Letusseehowthesecanbestudied.
Early humans would have obtained food through a number of ways, such as
gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. Gathering would involve collecting
plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. That gathering was
practised is generally assumed rather than conclusively established, as there is
very little direct evidence for it. While we get a fair amount of fossil bones,
fossilised plant remains are relatively rare. The only other way of getting
informationaboutplantintakewouldbeifplantremainswereaccidentallyburnt.
Thisprocessresultsincarbonisation.Inthisform,organicmatterispreservedfor
alongspanoftime.However,sofararchaeologistshavenotfoundmuchevidence
ofcarbonisedseedsforthisveryearlyperiod.
In recent years, the term hunting has been under discussion by scholars.
Increasingly,itisbeingsuggestedthattheearlyhominidsscavengedorforaged*
formeatandmarrowfromthecarcassesofanimalsthathaddiednaturallyorhad
beenkilledbyotherpredators.Itisequallypossiblethatsmallmammalssuchas
rodents,birds(andtheireggs),reptilesandeveninsects(suchastermites)were
eatenbyearlyhominids.
*Foragingmeanstosearchforfood
Hunting probably began later – about 500,000 years ago. The earliest clear
evidenceforthedeliberate,plannedhuntingandbutcheryoflargemammalscomes
from two sites: Boxgrove in southern England (500,000 years ago) and
Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago) (see Map 2 ). Fishing was also
important,asisevidentfromthediscoveryoffishbonesatdifferentsites.
Map2:Europe
From about 35,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting from some
Europeansites.Somesites,suchasDolniVestonice(intheCzechRepublic,see
Map2),whichwasnearariver,seemtohavebeendeliberatelychosenbyearly
people.Herdsofmigratoryanimalssuchasreindeerandhorseprobablycrossed
the river during their autumn and spring migrations and were killed on a large
scale.Thechoiceofsuchsitesindicatesthatpeopleknewaboutthemovementof
these animals and also about the means of killing large numbers of animals
quickly.
Did men and women have different roles in gathering, scavenging, hunting and
fishing?Wedonotreallyknow.Todaywefindsocietiesthatlivebyhuntingand
gathering,wherewomenandmenundertakearangeofdifferentactivities,but,as
wewillseelaterinthechapter,itisnotalwayspossibletosuggestparallelswith
thepast.
EarlyHumans
FromTrees,toCavesandOpen-airSites
We areon surer ground when wetry to reconstruct the evidencefor patternsof
residence. Oneway of doing this isbyplottingthe distribution ofartefacts. For
example,thousandsofflaketoolsandhandaxeshavebeenexcavatedatKilombe
and Olorgesailie (Kenya). These finds are dated between 700,000 and 500,000
yearsago.
Left:ThesiteofOlorgesailie.Theexcavators,MaryandLouisLeakey,hadacatwalkbuiltaroundthe
siteforobservers.
Above:Aclose-upoftoolsfoundatthesite,includinghandaxes.
How did these tools accumulate in one place? It is possible that some places,
where food resources were abundant, were visited repeatedly. In such areas,
people would tend to leave behind traces of their activities and presence,
including artefacts. The deposited artefacts would appear as patches on the
landscape. The places that were less frequently visited would have fewer
artefacts,whichmayhavebeenscatteredoverthesurface.
Itisalsoimportanttorememberthatthesamelocationscouldhavebeensharedby
hominids,otherprimatesandcarnivores.Lookatthediagrambelowtoseehow
thismayhaveworked.
ArchaeologistssuggestthatearlyhominidssuchasHomohabilisprobablyconsumedmostofthefood
wheretheyfoundit,sleptindifferentplaces,andspentmuchoftheirtimeintrees.Howwouldbones
havereachedthesite?Howwouldstoneshavereachedthesite?Wouldboneshavesurvivedintact?
Artefactsareobjectsthataremadebyhumanbeings.Thetermcanrefertoa
widerangeofthings–tools,paintings,sculpture,engravings.
Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open-air sites began to be
used.EvidenceforthiscomesfromsitesinEurope.IntheLazaretcaveinsouthern
France,a12x4metreshelterwasbuiltagainstthecavewall.Insideitweretwo
hearthsandevidenceofdifferentfoodsources:fruits,vegetables,seeds,nuts,bird
eggsandfreshwaterfish(trout,perchandcarp).Atanothersite,TerraAmataon
thecoastofsouthernFrance,flimsyshelterswithroofsofwoodandgrasseswere
builtforshort-term,seasonalvisits.
Piecesofbakedclayandburntbonealongwithstonetools,datedbetween1.4and
1 mya, have been found at Chesowanja, Kenya and Swartkrans, South Africa.
Were these the result of a natural bushfire or volcanic eruption? Or were they
producedthroughthedeliberate,controlleduseoffire?Wedonotreallyknow.
ThisisareconstructionofahutatTerraAmata.Thelargestoneboulderswereusedtosupportthe
sidesofthehut.Thesmallscattersofstoneonthefloorwereplaceswherepeoplemadestonetools.The
blackspotmarkedwithanarrowindicatesahearth.Inwhatwaysdoyouthinklifeforthosewholived
inthisshelterwouldbedifferentfromthatofthehominidswholivedontrees?
Hearths,ontheotherhand,areindicationsofthecontrolleduseoffire.Thishad
severaladvantages–fireprovidedwarmthand lightinsidecaves, andcouldbe
usedforcooking.Besides,firewasusedtohardenwood,asforinstancethetipof
thespear.Theuseofheatalsofacilitatedtheflakingoftools.Asimportant,fire
couldbeusedtoscareawaydangerousanimals.
EarlyHumans:MakingTools
Tostartwith,itisusefultorememberthattheuseoftoolsandtoolmakingarenot
confinedtohumans.Birdsareknowntomakeobjectstoassistthemwithfeeding,
hygieneandsocialencounters;andwhileforagingforfoodsomechimpanzeesuse
toolsthattheyhavemade.
However,therearesomefeaturesofhumantoolmakingthatarenotknownamong
apes.Aswehaveseen(seep.11),certainanatomicalandneurological(relatedto
thenervoussystem)adaptationshaveledtotheskilleduseofhands,probablydue
totheimportantroleoftoolsinhumanlives.Moreover,thewaysinwhichhumans
use and make tools often require greater memory and complex organisational
skills,bothofwhichareabsentinapes.
Theearliestevidence forthe makinganduseofstone toolscomesfrom sitesin
Ethiopia and Kenya (see Map 1). It is likely thatthe earliest stone tool makers
weretheAustralopithecus.
Someearlytools.ThesetoolswerefoundinOlduvai.Theoneaboveisachopper.Thisisalargestone
fromwhichflakeshavebeenremovedtoproduceaworkingedge.Theonebelowisahandaxe.
Canyousuggestwhatthesetoolsmayhavebeenusedfor?
Asinthecaseofotheractivities,wedonotknowwhethertoolmakingwasdone
bymenorwomenorboth.Itispossiblethatstonetoolmakerswerebothwomen
andmen.Womenin particularmayhave madeandusedtools toobtainfoodfor
themselvesaswellastosustaintheirchildrenafterweaning.
About 35,000years ago, improvementsin thetechniquesforkilling animals are
evidentfromtheappearanceofnewkindsoftoolssuchasspear-throwersandthe
bowandarrow.Themeatthusobtainedwasprobablyprocessedbyremovingthe
bones,followedbydrying,smokingandstorage.Thus,foodcouldbestoredfor
laterconsumption.
Aspear-thrower.Notethecarvingonthehandle.Theuseofthespear-throwerenabledhunterstohurl
spearsoverlongerdistances.
Canyousuggestanyadvantageinusingsuchequipment?
Therewereotherchanges,suchasthetrappingoffur-bearinganimals(tousethe
fur for clothing) and the invention of sewing needles. The earliest evidence of
sewnclothingcomesfromabout21,000yearsago.Besides,withtheintroduction
ofthepunchbladetechniquetomakesmallchisel-liketools,itwasnowpossible
tomakeengravingsonbone,antler,ivoryorwood.
ThePunchBladeTechnique
(a)Thetopofalargepebbleisremovedusingahammerstone.
(b)Thisproducesaflatsurfacecalledthestrikingplatform.
(c)Thisisthenstruckusingahammerandapunch,madeofboneorantler.
(d)Thisleadstotheproductionofbladesthatcanbeusedasknives,ormodifiedtoserveas
chiselsorburinswhichcouldbeusedtoengravebone,antler,ivoryorwood.
(e)Anexampleofengravingonbone.Notethedrawingsofanimalsonit.
ModesofCommunication:LanguageandArt
Amonglivingbeings,itishumansalonethathavealanguage.Thereareseveral
viewsonlanguagedevelopment:(1) thathominidlanguageinvolvedgesturesor
handmovements;(2)thatspokenlanguagewasprecededbyvocalbutnon-verbal
communicationsuchassingingorhumming;(3)thathumanspeechprobablybegan
with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates. Humans may
havepossesseda small numberof speech sounds inthe initialstage.Gradually,
thesemayhavedevelopedintolanguage.
Whendidspokenlanguageemerge?IthasbeensuggestedthatthebrainofHomo
habilishadcertainfeatureswhichwouldhavemadeitpossibleforthemtospeak.
Thus,languagemayhavedevelopedasearlyas2mya.Theevolutionofthevocal
tractwasequallyimportant.Thisoccurredaround200,000yearsago.Itismore
specificallyassociatedwithmodernhumans.
Athirdsuggestionisthatlanguagedevelopedaroundthesametimeasart,thatis,
around40,000-35,000yearsago. Thedevelopmentofspoken languagehas been
seenascloselyconnectedwithart,sincebotharemediaforcommunication.
CavePaintingsatAltamira
AltamiraisacavesiteinSpain.Thepaintingsontheceilingofthecavewerefirstbroughttotheattention
ofMarcelinoSanzdeSautuola,alocallandownerandanamateurarchaeologist,byhisdaughterMariain
November1879.Thelittlegirlwas‘runningaboutinthecavernandplayingabouthereandthere’,while
her father was digging the floor of the cave. Suddenly she noticed the paintings on the ceiling: ‘Look,
Papa,oxen!’Atfirst,herfatherjustlaughed,butsoonrealisedthatsomesortofpasteratherthanpaint
hadbeenusedforthepaintingsandbecame‘soenthusiasticthathecouldhardlyspeak’.Hepublisheda
booklet the following year, but for almost two decades his findings were dismissed by European
archaeologistsonthegroundthattheseweretoogoodtobeancient.
AdrawingofabisonatAltamira,northernSpain.
Hundreds of paintings of animals (done between 30,000 and12,000 years ago)
havebeendiscovered inthecaves of Lascaux andChauvet,bothinFrance,and
Altamira, in Spain. These include depictions of bison, horses, ibex, deer,
mammoths,rhinos,lions,bears,panthers,hyenasandowls.
More questions have been raised than answered regarding these paintings. For
example,whydosomeareasofcaveshavepaintingsandnotothers?Whywere
some animals painted and not others? Why were men painted both individually
and in groups, whereas women were depicted only in groups? Why were men
paintednearanimalsbutneverwomen?Whyweregroupsofanimalspaintedin
thesectionsofcaveswheresoundscarriedwell?
Severalexplanationshavebeenoffered.Oneisthatbecauseoftheimportanceof
hunting,thepaintingsofanimalswereassociatedwithritualandmagic.Theactof
paintingcouldhavebeenaritualtoensureasuccessfulhunt.Anotherexplanation
offered is that these caves were possibly meeting places for small groups of
people or locations for group activities. These groups could share hunting
techniquesandknowledge,whilepaintingsandengravingsservedasthemediafor
passinginformationfromonegenerationtothenext.
Theaboveaccountofearlysocietieshasbeenbasedonarchaeologicalevidence.
Clearly,thereismuchthatwestilldonotknow.Asmentionedatthebeginningof
this chapter, hunter-gatherer societies exist even today. Can one learn anything
aboutpastsocietiesfrompresent-dayhunter-gatherers?Thisisaquestionwewill
addressinthenextsection.
EarlyEncounterswithHunter-GatherersinAfrica
ThefollowingisanaccountbyamemberofanAfricanpastoralgroupaboutits
initialcontactin1870withthe!KungSan,ahunter-gatherersocietylivinginthe
Kalaharidesert:
Whenwefirstcameintothisarea,allwesawwerestrangefootprintsinthesand.
Wewonderedwhatkindofpeoplethesewere.Theywereveryafraidofusand
would hide whenever we came around. We found their villages, but they were
alwaysemptybecauseassoonastheysawstrangerscoming,theywouldscatter
andhideinthebush.Wesaid:‘Oh,thisisgood;thesepeopleareafraidofus,they
areweakandwecaneasilyruleoverthem.’Sowejustruledthem.Therewasno
killingorfighting.
Youwillreadmoreaboutencounterswithhunter-gatherersinThemes8and10.
TheHadza
‘TheHadzaareasmall groupof huntersandgatherers, livinginthevicinity ofLakeEyasi, asalt, rift-
valleylake...ThecountryoftheeasternHadza,dry,rockysavanna,dominatedbythornscrubandacacia
trees...is rich in wild foods. Animals are exceptionally numerous and were certainly commoner at the
beginning of the century. Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, waterbuck, gazelle, warthog,
baboon,lion,leopard,andhyenaareallcommon,asaresmalleranimalssuchasporcupine,hare,jackal,
tortoise and many others. All of these animals, apart from the elephant, are hunted and eaten by the
Hadza.Theamountofmeatthatcouldberegularlyeatenwithoutendangeringthefutureofthegameis
probablygreaterthananywhereelseintheworld wherehunters andgatherers liveorhavelivedinthe
recentpast.
Vegetablefoodroots,berries,thefruitofthebaobabtree,etc.thoughnotoftenobvioustothecasual
observer, is always abundant even at the height of the dry season in a year of drought. The type of
vegetable food available is different in the six-month wet season from the dry season but there is no
periodofshortage.Thehoneyandgrubsofsevenspeciesofwildbeeareeaten;suppliesofthesevary
fromseasontoseasonandfromyeartoyear.
Sourcesofwaterarewidelydistributedoverthecountryinthewetseason butare veryfewinthedry
season. The Hadza consider thatabout5-6 kilometres is themaximum distance over which water can
reasonablybecarriedandcampsarenormallysitedwithinakilometreofawatercourse.
Part of the country consists of open grass plains but the Hadza never build camps there. Camps are
invariablysitedamongtreesorrocksand,bypreference,amongboth.
TheeasternHadzaassertnorightsoverlandanditsresources.Anyindividualmaylivewhereverhelikes
and may hunt animals, collect roots, berries, and honey and draw water anywhere in Hadza country
withoutanysortofrestriction...
Inspiteoftheexceptionalnumbersofgameanimalsintheirarea,theHadzarelymainlyonwildvegetable
matterfortheirfood.Probablyasmuchas80percentoftheirfoodbyweightisvegetable,whilemeat
andhoneytogetheraccountfortheremaining20percent.
Campsarecommonlysmallandwidelydispersedinthewetseason,largeandconcentratednearthefew
availablesourcesofwaterinthedryseason.
Thereisneveranyshortageoffoodeveninthetimeofdrought.’
Writtenin1960byJamesWoodburn,ananthropologist.
Anthropologyisadisciplinethatstudieshumancultureandevolutionaryaspects
ofhumanbiology.
ACTIVITY3
Why do the Hadza not assert rights over land and its resources?
Why do the size and location of camps keep changing from
seasontoseason?Whyisthereneveranyshortageoffoodevenin
times of drought? Can you name any such hunter-gatherer
societiesinIndiatoday?
Hunter-GathererSocieties
FromthePresenttothePast
As our knowledge of present-day hunter-gatherers increased through studies by
anthropologists, a question that began to be posed was whether the information
about living hunters and gatherers could be used to understand past societies.
Currently,therearetwoopposingviewsonthisissue.
Onone sidearescholarswho have directly applied specific data frompresent-
day hunter-gatherer societiestointerpret the archaeological remainsof the past.
Forexample,somearchaeologistshavesuggestedthatthehominidsites,datedto
2mya,alongthemarginsofLakeTurkanacouldhavebeendryseasoncampsof
earlyhumans,becausesuchapracticehasbeenobservedamongtheHadzaandthe
!KungSan.
Ontheothersidearescholarswhofeelthatethnographicdatacannotbeusedfor
understandingpastsocietiesasthetwoaretotallydifferent.Forinstance,present-
dayhunter-gatherersocietiespursueseveralothereconomicactivitiesalongwith
hunting and gathering. These include engaging in exchange and trade in minor
forestproduce,orworkingaspaidlabourersinthefieldsofneighbouringfarmers.
Moreover,thesesocietiesaretotallymarginalisedinallsenses–geographically,
politicallyandsocially.Theconditionsinwhichtheyliveareverydifferentfrom
thoseofearlyhumans.
Another problem is that there is tremendous variation amongst living hunter-
gatherersocieties.Thereareconflictingdataonmanyissuessuchastherelative
importanceofhuntingandgathering,groupsizes,orthemovementfromplaceto
place.
Also, there is little consensus regarding the division of labour in food
procurement. Although today generally women gather and men hunt, there are
societieswherebothwomenandmenhuntandgatherandmaketools.Inanycase,
theimportantroleofwomenincontributing tothe food supplyinsuch societies
cannotbedenied.Itisperhapsthisfactorthatensuresarelativelyequalrolefor
bothwomenandmeninpresent-dayhunter-gatherersocieties,althoughthereare
variations. While this may be the case today, it is difficult to make any such
inferenceforthepast.
Ethnographyisthestudyofcontemporaryethnicgroups.Itincludesanexamination
of their modes of livelihood, technology, gender roles, rituals, political
institutionsandsocialcustoms.
Epilogue
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and gathering
wildplants.Then,between10,000and4,500yearsago,peopleindifferentparts
of the world learnt to domesticate certain plants and animals. This led to the
developmentoffarmingandpastoralismasawayoflife.Theshiftfromforaging
tofarmingwasamajorturningpointinhumanhistory.Whydidthischangetake
placeatthispointoftime?
The last ice age came to an end about 13,000 years ago and with that warmer,
wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were favourable for the
growth of grasses such as wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open
forestsandgrasslandsexpanded,thepopulationofcertainanimalspeciessuchas
wild sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey increased. What we find is thathuman
societiesbegan to gradually preferareasthathad an abundanceof wild grasses
and animals.Now relatively large,permanentcommunities occupied such areas
for most parts of the year. With some areas being clearly preferred, a pressure
mayhavebuiltuptoincreasethefoodsupply.Thismayhavetriggeredtheprocess
ofdomestication ofcertainplantsand animals.It islikely thatacombination of
factorswhichincludedclimaticchange,populationpressure,agreaterrelianceon
andknowledgeofafewspeciesofplants(suchaswheat,barley,riceandmillet)
and animals (such as sheep, goat, cattle, donkey and pig) played a role in this
transformation.
Onesuchareawherefarmingandpastoralismbeganaround10,000yearsagowas
the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean coast to the Zagros
mountainsinIran.Withtheintroductionofagriculture,morepeoplebegantostay
inoneplaceforevenlongerperiodsthantheyhaddonebefore.Thuspermanent
housesbegantobebuiltofmud,mudbricksandevenstone.Thesearesomeofthe
earliestvillagesknowntoarchaeologists.
ACTIVITY4
Whatdoyouthinkaretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofusing
ethnographic accounts to reconstruct the lives of the earliest
peoples?
Farmingandpastoralismledtotheintroductionofmanyotherchangessuchasthe
making of pots in which to store grain and other produce, and to cook food.
Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into use. Other new tools such as the
ploughwereusedin agriculture.Gradually,peoplebecamefamiliarwithmetals
such as copper and tin. The wheel, important for both pot making and
transportation,cameintouse.
About 5,000 years ago, even larger concentrations of people began to live
together in cities. Why did this happen? And what are the differences between
citiesandothersettlements?Lookoutforanswerstotheseandotherquestionsin
Theme2.
TheRiftValley,EastAfrica.
Exercises
Answerinbrief
1.Lookatthediagramshowingthepositivefeedbackmechanismonpage13.Can
youlisttheinputsthatwentintotoolmaking?Whatweretheprocessesthatwere
strengthenedbytoolmaking?
2. Humansand mammals such as monkeys and apeshave certain similarities in
behaviour and anatomy. This indicates thathumanspossiblyevolvedfrom apes.
Listtheseresemblancesintwocolumnsundertheheadingsof(a)behaviourand
(b)anatomy.Arethereanydifferencesthatyouthinkarenoteworthy?
3.Discusstheargumentsadvancedinfavouroftheregionalcontinuitymodelof
human origins. Do you think it provides a convincing explanation of the
archaeologicalevidence?Givereasonsforyouranswer.
4.Whichofthefollowingdoyouthinkisbestdocumentedinthearchaeological
record:(a)gathering,(b)toolmaking,(c)theuseoffire?
Answerinashortessay
5.Discusstheextenttowhich(a)huntingand(b)constructingshelterswouldhave
beenfacilitatedbytheuseoflanguage.Whatothermodesofcommunicationcould
havebeenusedfortheseactivities?
6.Chooseanytwo developmentseachfromTimelines1and 2at the end of the
chapterandindicatewhyyouthinkthesearesignificant.
Theme2
WritingandCityLife
City life began in Mesopotamia*, the land between the Euphrates and the
TigrisriversthatisnowpartoftheRepublicofIraq.Mesopotamiancivilisation
isknownforitsprosperity,citylife,itsvoluminousandrichliteratureandits
mathematics and astronomy. Mesopotamia’s writing system and literature
spread to the eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and Turkey after 2000
bce,sothatthekingdomsofthatentireregionwerewritingtooneanother,and
tothePharaohofEgypt,inthelanguageandscriptofMesopotamia.Herewe
shall explore the connection between city life and writing, and then look at
someoutcomesofasustainedtraditionofwriting.
*The name Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words mesos, meaning middle, and potamos,
meaningriver.
Inthebeginningofrecordedhistory,theland,mainlytheurbanisedsouth(see
discussionbelow),wascalledSumerandAkkad.After2000bce,whenBabylon
becameanimportantcity,thetermBabyloniawasusedforthesouthernregion.
From about 1100 bce, when the Assyrians established their kingdom in the
north, the region became known as Assyria. The first known language of the
land was Sumerian. It was gradually replaced by Akkadian around 2400 bce
when Akkadian speakers arrived. This language flourished till about
Alexanderstime(336-323bce), with some regional changes occurring. From
1400bce,Aramaicalso trickled in.Thislanguage,similartoHebrew,became
widelyspokenafter1000bce.ItisstillspokeninpartsofIraq.
ArchaeologyinMesopotamiabeganinthe1840s.Atoneortwosites(including
UrukandMari,whichwediscussbelow),excavationscontinuedfordecades.(No
Indian site has ever seen such long-term projects.) Not only can we study
hundredsofMesopotamianbuildings,statues,ornaments,graves,toolsandseals
assources,therearethousandsofwrittendocuments.
MesopotamiawasimportanttoEuropeansbecauseofreferencestoitintheOld
Testament,thefirstpartoftheBible.Forinstance,theBookofGenesisoftheOld
Testament refers to Shimar, meaning Sumer, as a land of brick-built cities.
TravellersandscholarsofEuropelookedonMesopotamiaasakindofancestral
land, and when archaeological work began in the area, there was an attemptto
provetheliteraltruthoftheOldTestament.
From the mid-nineteenth century there was no stopping the enthusiasm for
exploringtheancientpastofMesopotamia.In1873,aBritishnewspaperfunded
anexpeditionoftheBritishMuseumtosearchforatabletnarratingthestoryofthe
Flood,mentionedintheBible.
By the 1960s, itwas understood that the stories of the Old Testament were not
literally true, but may have been ways of expressing memories about important
changes in history. Gradually, archaeological techniques became far more
sophisticated and refined. What is more, attention was directed to different
questions,includingreconstructingthelivesofordinary people.Establishingthe
literaltruthofBiblicalnarrativesrecededintothebackground.Muchofwhatwe
discusssubsequentlyinthechapterisbasedontheselaterstudies.
AccordingtotheBible,theFloodwasmeanttodestroyalllifeonearth.However,
Godchoseaman,Noah,toensurethatlifecouldcontinueaftertheFlood.Noah
builtahugeboat,anark.Hetookapaireachofallknownspeciesofanimalsand
birdsonboardtheark,whichsurvivedtheFlood.Therewasastrikinglysimilar
story in the Mesopotamian tradition, where the principal character was called
ZiusudraorUtnapishtim.
Map1:WestAsia
Activity1
Manysocietieshavemythsaboutfloods.Theseareoftenwaysof
preserving and expressing memories about important changes in
history. Find out more about these, noting how life before and
afterthefloodisrepresented.
MesopotamiaanditsGeography
Iraq is a land of diverse environments. In the north-east lie green, undulating
plains, gradually rising to tree-covered mountain ranges with clear streams and
wild flowers, with enough rainfall to grow crops. Here, agriculture began
between 7000 and 6000 bce. In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a
steppe,whereanimalherdingofferspeopleabetterlivelihoodthanagriculture
after the winter rains, sheep and goats feed on the grasses and low shrubs that
growhere.Totheeast,tributariesoftheTigrisprovideroutesofcommunication
intothemountainsofIran.Thesouthisadesert–andthisiswherethefirstcities
and writing emerged (see below). This desert could support cities because the
riversEuphratesandTigris,whichriseinthenorthernmountains,carryloadsof
silt (finemud). When they flood or when their waterislet out on to the fields,
fertilesiltisdeposited.
Map2:Mesopotamia:Mountains,Steppe,Desert,IrrigatedZoneoftheSouth.
AftertheEuphrateshasenteredthedesert,itswaterflowsoutintosmallchannels.
Thesechannelsfloodtheirbanksand,inthepast,functionedasirrigationcanals:
watercouldbeletintothefieldsofwheat,barley,peasorlentilswhennecessary.
Ofallancientsystems,thatoftheRomanEmpire(Theme3)included,itwasthe
agricultureofsouthernMesopotamiathatwasthemostproductive,eventhoughthe
regiondidnothavesufficientrainfalltogrowcrops.
Notonlyagriculture,Mesopotamiansheepandgoatsthatgrazedonthesteppe,the
north-eastern plains and the mountain slopes (that is, on tracts too high for the
riverstofloodandfertilise)producedmeat,milkandwoolinabundance.Further,
fish was available in rivers and date-palms gave fruit in summer. Let us not,
however, make the mistake of thinking that cities grew simply because of rural
prosperity.Weshalldiscussotherfactorsbyandby,butfirstletusbeclearabout
citylife.
TheSignificanceofUrbanism
Citiesandtownsarenotjustplaceswithlargepopulations.Itiswhenaneconomy
developsinspheresotherthanfoodproductionthatitbecomesanadvantagefor
peopleto clusterintowns.Urban economiescomprisebesidesfoodproduction,
trade,manufacturesandservices.Citypeople,thus,ceasetobeself-sufficientand
depend on the products or services of other (city or village) people. There is
continuous interaction among them. For instance, the carver of a stone seal
requires bronze tools that he himself cannot make, and coloured stones for the
sealsthathedoesnotknowwheretoget:hisspecialisationisfinecarving,not
trading.Thebronzetoolmakerdoesnothimselfgoouttogetthemetals,copper
andtin.Besides,heneedsregularsuppliesofcharcoalforfuel.Thedivisionof
labourisamarkofurbanlife.
Further,theremustbeasocialorganisationinplace.Fuel,metal,variousstones,
wood, etc., come from many different places for city manufacturers. Thus,
organised trade and storage is needed. There are deliveries of grain and other
fooditems from thevillageto the city,and foodsuppliesneed tobestored and
distributed.Besides,manydifferentactivitieshavetobecoordinated:theremust
be not only stones but also bronze tools and pots available for seal cutters.
Obviously, in such a system some people give commands that others obey, and
urbaneconomiesoftenrequirethekeepingofwrittenrecords.
The earliest cities in Mesopotamia date back to the bronze age, c.3000 bce.
Bronzeisanalloyofcopperandtin.Usingbronzemeantprocuringthesemetals,
often from great distances. Metal tools were necessary for accurate carpentry,
drilling beads, carving stone seals, cutting shell for inlaid furniture, etc.
Mesopotamianweaponswerealsoofbronze–forexample,thetipsofthespears
thatyouseeintheillustrationonp.38.
TheWarkaHead
This womans head was sculpted in white marble at Uruk before 3000 bce. The eyes and eyebrows
wouldprobably have taken lapislazuli (blue) and shell (white) and bitumen (black) inlays, respectively.
Thereis agroovealong thetopofthehead, perhapsforanornament.This isaworld-famouspieceof
sculpture, admired for the delicate modelling of the womans mouth, chin and cheeks. And it was
modelledinahardstonethatwouldhavebeenimportedfromadistance.
Beginning with the procurement of stone, list all the specialists who would be involved in the
productionofsuchapieceofsculpture.
Activity2
Discuss whether city life would have been possible without the
useofmetals.
MovementofGoodsintoCities
However rich the food resources of Mesopotamia, its mineral resources were
few.Mostpartsofthesouthlackedstonesfortools,sealsandjewels;thewoodof
the Iraqi date-palm and poplar was not good enough for carts, cart wheels or
boats;andtherewasnometalfortools,vesselsorornaments.Sowecansurmise
that the ancient Mesopotamians could have traded their abundant textiles and
agriculturalproduceforwood,copper,tin,silver,gold,shellandvariousstones
from Turkey and Iran, or across the Gulf. These latter regions had mineral
resources,butmuchlessscopeforagriculture.Regularexchanges–possibleonly
whentherewasasocialorganisation–toequipforeignexpeditionsanddirectthe
exchangeswereinitiatedbythepeopleofsouthernMesopotamia.
Besidescrafts,tradeandservices,efficienttransportisalsoimportantforurban
development.Ifittakestoomuchtime,ortoomuchanimalfeed,tocarrygrainor
charcoalintocitiesonpackanimalsorbullockcarts,thecityeconomywillnotbe
viable. The cheapest mode of transportation is, everywhere, over water. River
boats or barges loaded with sacks of grain are propelled by the current of the
river and/or wind, but when animals transport goods, they need to be fed. The
canalsandnaturalchannelsofancientMesopotamiawereinfactroutesofgoods
transport between large and small settlements, and in the account on the city of
Marilaterinthechapter,theimportanceoftheEuphratesasaworldroutewill
becomeclear.
TheDevelopmentofWriting
All societies have languages in which certain spoken sounds convey certain
meanings.Thisisverbalcommunication.Writingtoois verbalcommunication
but in a different way. When we talk about writing or a script, we mean that
spokensoundsarerepresentedin
visiblesigns.
Claytabletsc.3200bce.Eachtabletis3.5cmorlessinheight,withpicture-likesigns(ox,fish,grain,
boat)andnumbers()
ThefirstMesopotamiantablets,writtenaround3200bce, contained picture-like
signsandnumbers.Thesewereabout5,000listsofoxen,fish,breadloaves,etc.–
listsofgoodsthatwerebroughtintoordistributedfromthetemplesofUruk,acity
in the south. Clearly, writing began when society needed to keep records of
transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and
involvedmanypeopleandavarietyofgoods.
Cuneiformsyllabicsigns.
Mesopotamianswroteontabletsofclay.Ascribewouldwetclayandpatitintoa
size he could hold comfortably in one hand. He would carefully smoothen its
surfaces. With the sharp end of a reed cut obliquely, he would press wedge-
shaped(‘cuneiform*)signsontothesmoothenedsurfacewhileitwasstillmoist.
Aclaytabletwrittenonbothsidesincuneiform.
Itisamathematicalexercise–youcanseeatriangleandlinesacrossthetriangleonthetopofthe
obverseside.Youcanseethatthelettershavebeenpressedintotheclay.
Once dried in the sun, the clay would harden and tablets would be almost as
indestructibleaspottery.Whenawrittenrecordof,say,thedeliveryofpiecesof
metal had ceased to be relevant, the tablet was thrown away. Once the surface
dried, signs could not be pressed on to a tablet: so each transaction, however
minor, required a separate written tablet. This is why tablets occur by the
hundredsatMesopotamiansites.Anditisbecauseofthiswealthofsourcesthat
weknowsomuchmoreaboutMesopotamiathanwedoaboutcontemporaryIndia.
*CuneiformisderivedfromtheLatinwordscuneus,meaning‘wedge’andforma,meaning‘shape’.
By2600bceorso,thelettersbecamecuneiform,andthelanguagewasSumerian.
Writing was now used not only for keeping records, but also for making
dictionaries,giving legalvaliditytolandtransfers, narratingthe deedsof kings,
and announcing thechangesaking hadmadein thecustomary lawsofthe land.
Sumerian, the earliestknown languageof Mesopotamia,wasgradually replaced
after 2400 bce by the Akkadian language. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian
language continued in use until the first century ce, that is, for more than 2,000
years.
TheSystemofWriting
Thesoundthatacuneiformsignrepresentedwasnotasingleconsonantorvowel
(suchasmoraintheEnglishalphabet),butsyllables(say,-put-,or-la-,or-in-).
Thus,thesignsthataMesopotamianscribehadtolearnranintohundreds,andhe
hadtobeabletohandleawettabletandgetitwrittenbeforeitdried.So,writing
was a skilled craft but, more important, it was an enormous intellectual
achievement, conveying in visual form the system of sounds of a particular
language.
Literacy
VeryfewMesopotamianscouldreadandwrite.Notonlyweretherehundredsof
signstolearn,manyofthesewerecomplex(seep.33).Ifakingcouldread,he
madesurethatthiswasrecordedinoneofhisboastfulinscriptions!Forthemost
part,however,writingreflectedthemodeofspeaking.
Aletterfromanofficialwouldhavetobereadouttotheking.Soitwouldbegin:
‘TomylordA,speak:…ThussaysyourservantB:…Ihavecarriedoutthework
assignedtome...’
Alongmythicalpoemaboutcreationendsthus:
‘Lettheseversesbeheldinremembranceandlettheelderteachthem;
letthewiseoneandthescholardiscussthem;
letthefatherrepeatthemtohissons;
lettheearsof(even)theherdsmanbeopenedtothem.’
TheUsesofWriting
The connection between city life, trade and writing is brought out in a long
Sumerian epic poem about Enmerkar, one of the earliest rulers of Uruk. In
Mesopotamiantradition,Urukwasthecityparexcellence,oftenknownsimplyas
TheCity.
Enmerkar is associated with the organisation of the first trade of Sumer: in the
early days, the epic says, trade was notknown. Enmerkar wanted lapis lazuli
andpreciousmetalsforthebeautificationofacitytempleandsenthismessenger
outtogetthemfromthechiefofaverydistantlandcalledAratta.Themessenger
heededthewordoftheking.Bynighthewentjustbythestars.Byday,hewould
gobyheavenssundivine.Hehadtogoupintothemountainranges,andhadto
come down out of the mountain ranges. The people of Susa (a city) below the
mountainssalutedhimliketinymice*.Fivemountainranges,sixmountainranges,
sevenmountainrangeshecrossed...’
ThemessengercouldnotgetthechiefofArattatopartwithlapislazuliorsilver,
and he had to make the long journey back and forth, again and again, carrying
threats and promises from the king of Uruk. Ultimately, the messenger grew
weary of mouth’. He gotall the messages mixed up. Then, Enmerkar formed a
clay tablet in his hand, and he wrote the words down. In those days, there had
beennowritingdownofwordsonclay.’
*Thepoetmeansthatoncethemessengerhadclimbedtoagreatheight,everythingappearedsmallin
thevalleyfarbelow.
Giventhewrittentablet,therulerofArattaexaminedtheclay.Thespokenwords
werenails*.Hisfacewasfrowning.Hekeptlookingatthetablet.’
This should not be taken as the literal truth, but it can be inferred that in
Mesopotamian understanding it was kingship that organised trade and writing.
Thispoemalsotellsusthat,besidesbeingameansofstoringinformationandof
sending messages afar, writing was seen as a sign of the superiority of
Mesopotamianurbanculture.
*Cuneiformletterswerewedgeshaped,hence,likenails.
Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia:Temples and
Kings
From5000bce,settlementshadbeguntodevelopinsouthernMesopotamia.The
earliest cities emerged from some of these settlements. These were of various
kinds: those that gradually developed around temples; those that developed as
centresoftrade;andimperialcities.Itiscitiesofthefirsttwokindsthatwillbe
discussedhere.
Early settlers (theirorigins areunknown)began to buildand rebuild templesat
selected spots in their villages. The earliest known temple was a small shrine
made of unbaked bricks. Temples were the residences of various gods: of the
MoonGodofUr,orofInannatheGoddessofLoveandWar.Constructedinbrick,
temples became larger over time, with several rooms around open courtyards.
Some of the early ones were possibly not unlike the ordinary house – for the
templewasthehouseofagod.Buttemplesalwayshadtheirouterwallsgoingin
andoutatregularintervals,whichnoordinarybuildingeverhad.
Thegodwasthefocusofworship:tohimorherpeoplebroughtgrain,curdand
fish(thefloorsofsomeearlytempleshadthicklayersoffishbones).Thegodwas
alsothetheoreticalowneroftheagriculturalfields,thefisheries,andtheherdsof
thelocalcommunity.Intime,theprocessingofproduce(forexample,oilpressing,
graingrinding,spinning,andtheweavingofwoollencloth)wasalsodoneinthe
temple. Organiser of production at a level above the household, employer of
merchantsandkeeperofwrittenrecordsofdistributionsandallotmentsofgrain,
plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc., the temple gradually developed its
activitiesandbecamethemainurbaninstitution.Buttherewasalsoanotherfactor
onthescene.
Theearliestknowntempleofthesouth,c.5000bce(plan).
Inspiteofnaturalfertility,agriculturewassubjecttohazards.Thenaturaloutlet
channels of the Euphrates would have too much water one year and flood the
crops,andsometimestheywouldchangecoursealtogether.Asthearchaeological
record shows, villages were periodically relocated in Mesopotamian history.
There were man-made problems as well. Those who lived on the upstream
stretches of a channel could divert so much water into their fields that villages
downstream were left without water. Or they could neglect toclean out the silt
fromtheirstretchofthechannel,blockingtheflowofwaterfurtherdown.Sothe
earlyMesopotamiancountrysidesawrepeatedconflictoverlandandwater.
Atempleofalaterperiod,c.3000bce,withanopencourtyardandin-and-outfaçade(asexcavated).
When there was continuous warfare in a region, those chiefs who had been
successfulinwarcouldobligetheirfollowersbydistributingtheloot,andcould
takeprisonersfromthedefeatedgroupstoemployastheirguardsorservants.So
theycouldincreasetheirinfluenceandclout.Suchwarleaders,however,would
beheretodayandgonetomorrow–untilatimecamewhensuchleadershipcame
toincreasethewell-beingofthecommunitywiththecreationofnewinstitutions
orpractices.Intime,victoriouschiefsbegantoofferpreciousbootytothegods
andthusbeautifythecommunitystemples.Theywouldsendmenouttofetchfine
stones and metal for the benefit of the god and community and organise the
distributionoftemplewealthinanefficientwaybyaccountingforthingsthatcame
inandwentout.AsthepoemaboutEnmerkarshows,thisgavethekinghighstatus
andtheauthoritytocommandthecommunity.
We can imagine a mutually reinforcing cycle of development in which leaders
encouragedthesettlementofvillagersclosetothemselves,tobeabletorapidly
getanarmytogether.Besides,peoplewouldbesafelivingincloseproximityto
one another. At Uruk, one of the earliest temple towns, we find depictions of
armedheroesand their victims, and carefularchaeological surveyshave shown
thataround3000bce,whenUrukgrewtotheenormousextentof250hectares
twice as large as Mohenjo-daro would be in later centuries – dozens of small
villages were deserted. There had been a major population shift. Significantly,
Uruk also came to have a defensive wall at a very early date. The site was
continuouslyoccupiedfromabout4200bcetoabout400ce,andbyabout2800
bceithadexpandedto400hectares.
Top:Basaltstele*showingabeardedmantwice.Notehisheadbandandhair,waistbandandlongskirt.
Inthelowersceneheattacksalionwithahugebowandarrow.Inthesceneabove,theherofinally
killstherampantlionwithaspear(c.3200bce).
Warcaptivesandlocalpeoplewereputtoworkforthetemple,ordirectlyforthe
ruler.This,ratherthanagriculturaltax,wascompulsory.Thosewhowereputto
work were paid rations. Hundreds of ration lists have been found, which give,
againstpeople’snames,thequantitiesofgrain,clothoroilallottedtothem.Ithas
beenestimatedthat oneof thetemples took1,500 men working 10hoursaday,
fiveyearstobuild.
Withrulerscommandingpeopletofetchstonesormetalores,tocomeandmake
bricks or lay the bricks for a temple, or else to go toa distantcountry to fetch
suitablematerials,therewerealsotechnicaladvancesatUrukaround3000bce.
Bronzetoolscameintouseforvariouscrafts.Architectslearnttoconstructbrick
columns,therebeingnosuitablewoodtobeartheweightoftheroofoflargehalls.
Hundredsofpeoplewereputtoworkatmakingandbakingclayconesthatcould
be pushed into temple walls, painted in different colours, creating a colourful
mosaic.Insculpture,thereweresuperbachievements,notineasilyavailableclay
but inimportedstone.Andthen therewasa technologicallandmarkthatwecan
say isappropriatetoan urban economy:thepotterswheel.In the long run, the
wheelenablesapottersworkshoptomassproduce’dozensofsimilarpotsata
time.
*Stelesarestoneslabswithinscriptionsorcarvings.
Impressionofacylinderseal,c.3200bce.Thebeardedandarmedstandingfigureissimilarindress
andhairstyletotheherointhestele*shownabove.
Notethreeprisonersofwar,theirarmsbound,andafourthmanbeseechingthewarleader.
TheSeal–AnUrbanArtefact
In India, early stone seals were stamped. In Mesopotamia until the end of the first millennium bce,
cylindricalstoneseals,pierceddownthecentre,werefittedwithastickandrolledoverwetclaysothata
continuous picture was created. They were carved by very skilled craftsmen, and sometimes carry
writing:thenameoftheowner,hisgod,hisofficialposition,etc.Asealcouldberolledonclaycovering
thestringknotofaclothpackageorthemouthofapot,keepingthecontentssafe.Whenrolledonaletter
writtenon aclaytablet, itbecameamarkof authenticity.Sothesealwas themarkof acitydwellers
roleinpubliclife.
Fiveearlycylindersealsandtheirimpressions.
Describewhatyouseeineachoftheimpressions.Isthecuneiformscriptshownonthem?
LifeintheCity
Whatwehaveseenisthatarulingelitehademerged:asmallsectionofsociety
hadamajorshareofthewealth.Nothingmakesthisfactasclearastheenormous
riches (jewellery, gold vessels, wooden musical instruments inlaid with white
shell andlapis lazuli, ceremonialdaggers of gold,etc.)buried with some kings
andqueensatUr.Butwhatoftheordinarypeople?
*Anuclearfamilycomprisesaman,hiswifeandchildren.
We know from the legal texts (disputes, inheritance matters, etc.) that in
Mesopotamiansocietythenuclearfamily*wasthenorm,althoughamarriedson
and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the
family. We know a little about the procedures for marriage. A declaration was
madeaboutthewillingnesstomarry,thebride’sparentsgivingtheirconsenttothe
marriage. Then a gift was given by the grooms people to the bride’s people.
When the wedding took place, gifts were exchanged by both parties, who ate
together and madeofferingsin a temple. When her mother-in-lawcame to fetch
her, thebride was given her share of theinheritance by her father. The fathers
house,herds,fields,etc.,wereinheritedbythesons.
LetuslookatUr,oneoftheearliestcitiestohavebeenexcavated.Urwasatown
whose ordinary houses were systematically excavated in the 1930s. Narrow
winding streets indicate that wheeled carts could not have reached many of the
houses.Sacksofgrainandfirewoodwouldhavearrivedondonkey-back.Narrow
windingstreetsandtheirregularshapesofhouseplotsalsoindicateanabsenceof
townplanning.Therewereno streetdrains ofthekind wefindin contemporary
Mohenjo-daro.Drainsandclaypipeswereinsteadfoundintheinnercourtyards
oftheUrhousesanditisthoughtthathouseroofsslopedinwardsandrainwater
waschannelledviathedrainpipesintosumps*intheinnercourtyards.Thiswould
have been a way of preventing the unpaved streets from becoming excessively
slushyafteradownpour.
*Asumpisacoveredbasininthegroundintowhichwaterandsewageflow.
AresidentialareaatUr,c.2000bce.
Canyoulocate,besidesthewindingstreets,twoorthreeblindalleys?
Yet people seem to have sweptalltheirhouseholdrefuse into the streets,tobe
trodden underfoot!Thismade streetlevels rise,and over time the thresholds of
houses had also to be raised so that no mud would flow inside after the rains.
Lightcameintotheroomsnotfromwindowsbutfromdoorwaysopeningintothe
courtyards: this would also have given families their privacy. There were
superstitions about houses, recorded in omen tablets at Ur: a raised threshold
broughtwealth;afrontdoorthatdidnotopentowardsanotherhousewaslucky;
butifthemainwoodendoorofahouseopenedoutwards(insteadofinwards),the
wifewouldbeatormenttoherhusband!
TherewasatowncemeteryatUrinwhichthegravesofroyaltyandcommoners
have been found, but a few individuals were found buried under the floors of
ordinaryhouses.
ATradingTowninaPastoralZone
After2000bcetheroyalcapitalofMariflourished.Youwillhavenoticed(see
Map 2) that Mari stands not on the southern plain with its highly productive
agriculture but much further upstream on the Euphrates. Map 3 with its colour
codingshowsthatagricultureandanimalrearingwerecarriedoutclosetoeach
otherinthisregion.SomecommunitiesinthekingdomofMarihadbothfarmers
andpastoralists,butmostofitsterritorywasusedforpasturingsheepandgoats.
Map3:TheLocationofMari
Herders needtoexchange young animals, cheese, leather and meat in return for
grain,metaltools,etc.,andthemanureofapennedflockisalsoofgreatusetoa
farmer.Yet,atthesametime,theremaybeconflict.Ashepherdmaytakehisflock
towateracrossasownfield,totheruinofthecrop.Herdsmenbeingmobilecan
raid agricultural villages and seize their stored goods. For their part, settled
groupsmaydenypastoralistsaccesstoriverandcanalwateralongacertainsetof
paths.
Through Mesopotamian history, nomadic communities of the western desert
filtered into the prosperous agricultural heartland. Shepherds would bring their
flocksintothesownareainthesummer.Suchgroupswouldcomeinasherders,
harvestlabourers or hired soldiers, occasionally becomeprosperous, and settle
down. A few gained the power to establish their own rule. These included the
Akkadians,Amorites,AssyriansandAramaeans.(Youwillreadmoreaboutrulers
from pastoral societies in Theme 5.) The kings of Mari were Amorites whose
dressdifferedfromthatoftheoriginalinhabitantsandwhorespectednotonlythe
gods of Mesopotamia but also raised a temple at Mari for Dagan, god of the
steppe.Mesopotamiansocietyandculturewerethusopentodifferentpeopleand
cultures,andthevitalityofthecivilisationwasperhapsduetothisintermixture.
Awarriorholdingalongspearandawickershield.Notethedress,typicalofAmorites,anddifferent
fromthatoftheSumerianwarriorshownonp.38.Thispicturewasincisedonshell,c.2600bce.
ThePalaceatMariofKingZimrilim(1810-1760bce)
ThePalaceatMariofKingZimrilim(1810-1760bce)
ThegreatpalaceofMariwastheresidenceoftheroyalfamily,thehubofadministration,andaplaceof
production,especiallyofpreciousmetalornaments.Itwassofamousinitstimethataminorkingcame
fromnorthSyriajusttoseeit,carryingwithhimaletterofintroductionfromaroyalfriendofthekingof
Mari,Zimrilim.Dailylistsrevealthathugequantitiesoffoodwerepresentedeachdayfortheking’stable:
flour,bread,meat,fish,fruit,beerandwine.Heprobablyateinthecompanyofmanyothers,inoraround
courtyard106,pavedwhite.Youwillnoticefromtheplanthatthepalacehadonlyoneentrance,onthe
north. The large, open courtyards such as 131 were beautifully paved. The king would have received
foreign dignitaries and his own people in 132, a room with wall paintings that would have awed the
visitors.Thepalacewasasprawlingstructure,with260roomsandcoveredanareaof2.4hectares.
Activity3
Tracetheroutefromtheentrancetotheinnercourt.
Whatdoyouthinkwouldhavebeenkeptinthestorerooms?
Howhasthekitchenbeenidentified?
The kings of Mari, however, had to be vigilant; herders of various tribes were
allowedtomoveinthekingdom,buttheywerewatched.Thecampsofherdersare
mentionedfrequentlyinlettersbetweenkingsandofficials.Inoneletter,anofficer
writestothekingthathehasbeenseeingfrequentfiresignalsatnight–sentby
onecamptoanother–andhesuspectsthataraidoranattackisbeingplanned.
LocatedontheEuphratesinaprimepositionfortrade–inwood,copper,tin,oil,
wine, and variousother goods that were carried in boatsalong the Euphrates
between the south and the mineral-rich uplands of Turkey, Syria and Lebanon,
Mari is a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade. Boatscarrying
grindingstones,wood,andwineandoiljars,wouldstopatMariontheirwayto
thesouthern cities.Officers of this town would go aboard, inspect the cargo (a
singleriverboatcouldhold300winejars),andlevyachargeofaboutone-tenth
thevalueofthe goodsbeforeallowingtheboattocontinuedownstream.Barley
came in special grain boats. Most important, tablets refer to copper from
‘Alashiya’,theislandofCyprus,knownforitscopper,andtinwasalsoanitemof
trade. As bronze was the main industrial material for tools and weapons, this
trade was of great importance. Thus, although the kingdom of Mari was not
militarilystrong,itwasexceptionallyprosperous.
ExcavatingMesopotamianTowns
Today,Mesopotamianexcavatorshavemuchhigherstandardsofaccuracyandcareinrecordingthanin
theolddays,sothatfewdighugeareasthewayUrwasexcavated.Moreover,fewarchaeologistshave
thefundstoemploylargeteamsofexcavators.Thus,themodeofobtainingdatahaschanged.
TakethesmalltownatAbuSalabikh,about10hectaresinareain2500bcewith apopulationless than
10,000.Theoutlinesofwallswereatfirsttracedbyscrapingsurfaces.Thisinvolvesscrapingoffthetop
few millimetres of the mound with the sharp and wide end of a shovel or other tool. While the soil
underneathwasstillslightlymoist,thearchaeologistcouldmakeoutdifferentcolours,texturesandlinesof
brick walls or pits or other features. A few houses that were discovered were excavated. The
archaeologistsalsosievedthroughtonsofearthtorecoverplantandanimalremains,andintheprocess
identified many species ofplants and animalsand found largequantities ofcharred fishbonesthathad
beensweptoutontothestreets. Plantseedsandfibreremainedafterdungcakes hadbeenburnedas
fuelandthuskitchenswereidentified.Livingroomswerethosewithfewertraces.Becausetheyfound
theteethofveryyoungpigsonthestreets,archaeologistsconcludedthatpigsmusthaveroamedfreely
hereasinanyotherMesopotamiantown.Infact,onehouseburialcontainedsomepigbonesthedead
personmusthavebeengivensomeporkforhisnourishmentintheafterlife!Thearchaeologistsalsomade
microscopicstudiesofroomfloorstodecidewhichroomsinahousewereroofed(withpoplarlogs,palm
leaves,straw,etc.)andwhichwereopentothesky.
CitiesinMesopotamianCulture
Mesopotamians valued city life in which people of many communities and
cultureslivedsidebyside.Aftercitiesweredestroyedinwar,theyrecalledthem
inpoetry.
ThemostpoignantremindertousoftheprideMesopotamianstookintheircities
comes at the end of the Gilgamesh Epic, which was written on twelve tablets.
GilgameshissaidtohaveruledthecityofUruksometimeafterEnmerkar.Agreat
hero who subdued people far and wide, he got a shock when his heroic friend
died. He then set out to find the secret of immortality, crossing the waters that
surround the world. After a heroic attempt, Gilgamesh failed, and returned to
Uruk.There,heconsoledhimselfbywalkingalongthecitywall,backandforth.
Headmiredthefoundationsmadeoffiredbricksthathehadputintoplace.Itison
the city wall of Uruk that the long tale of heroism and endeavour fizzles out.
Gilgameshdoesnotsaythateventhoughhewilldiehissonswilloutlivehim,asa
tribalherowouldhavedone.Hetakesconsolationinthecitythathispeoplehad
built.
TheLegacyofWriting
Whilemovingnarrativescanbetransmittedorally,sciencerequireswrittentexts
thatgenerationsofscholarscanreadandbuildupon.Perhapsthegreatestlegacy
of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and
mathematics.
Dating around 1800 bce are tablets with multiplication and division tables,
square-andsquare-roottables,andtablesofcompoundinterest.Thesquareroot
of2wasgivenas:
1+24/60+51/602+10/603
If you work this out,you will find that theanswer is 1.41421296, only slightly
different from the correct answer, 1.41421356. Students had to solve problems
suchasthefollowing:afieldofareasuchandsuchiscoveredonefingerdeepin
water;findoutthevolumeofwater.
Thedivisionofthe yearinto12monthsaccordingto therevolutionofthemoon
aroundtheearth,thedivisionofthemonthintofourweeks,thedayinto24hours,
andthehourinto60minutes–allthatwetakeforgrantedinourdailylives–has
come to us from theMesopotamians.Thesetime divisions wereadopted by the
successorsofAlexanderandfromtheretransmittedtotheRomanworld,thento
the world of Islam, and then to medieval Europe (see Theme 7 for how this
happened).
Whenever solar and lunar eclipses were observed, their occurrence was noted
accordingtoyear,monthandday.Sotootherewererecordsabouttheobserved
positionsofstarsandconstellationsinthenightsky.
NoneofthesemomentousMesopotamianachievementswouldhavebeenpossible
without writing and the urban institution of schools, where students read and
copiedearlierwrittentablets,andwheresomeboysweretrainedtobecomenot
record keepers for the administration, but intellectuals who could build on the
workoftheirpredecessors.
Wewouldbemistakenifwethinkthatthepreoccupationwiththeurbanworldof
Mesopotamiaisamodernphenomenon.Letuslook,finally,attwoearlyattempts
tolocateandpreservethetextsandtraditionsofthepast.
AnEarlyLibrary
Intheironage,theAssyriansofthenorthcreatedanempire,atitsheightbetween720and610bce,that
stretched as far west as Egypt. The state economy was now a predatory one, extracting labour and
tributeintheformoffood,animals,metalandcraftitemsfromavastsubjectpopulation.
ThegreatAssyriankings,whohadbeenimmigrants,acknowledgedthesouthernregion,Babylonia,asthe
centreofhighcultureandthelastofthem,Assurbanipal(668-627bce),collectedalibraryathiscapital,
Ninevehinthenorth.Hemadegreateffortstogathertabletsonhistory,epics,omenliterature,astrology,
hymnsandpoems.Hesenthisscribessouthtofindoldtablets.Becausescribesinthesouthweretrained
to read and write in schools where they all had to copy tablets by the dozen, there were towns in
Babylonia where huge collections of tablets were created and acquired fame. And although Sumerian
ceasedtobespokenafterabout1800bce,itcontinuedtobetaughtinschools,throughvocabularytexts,
signlists,bilingual(SumerianandAkkadian)tablets,etc.Soevenin650bce,cuneiformtabletswrittenas
farbackas2000bcewereintelligibleandAssurbanipalsmenknewwheretolookforearlytabletsor
theircopies.
Copies were made of important texts such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, the copier stating his name and
writingthedate.SometabletsendedwithareferencetoAssurbanipal:
‘I,Assurbanipal,kingoftheuniverse,kingofAssyria,onwhomthegodsbestowedvastintelligence,who
couldacquirethereconditedetailsofscholarlyerudition,Iwrotedownontabletsthewisdomofthegods
…AndIcheckedandcollatedthetablets.Iplacedthemforthefutureinthelibraryofthetempleofmy
god,Nabu, at Nineveh, for my lifeandthewell-being of mysoul, andtosustainthefoundations of my
royalthrone…’
Moreimportant,therewascataloguing:abasketoftabletswouldhaveaclaylabelthatread:‘nnumberof
tabletsaboutexorcism,writtenbyX’.Assurbanipalslibraryhadatotalofsome1,000texts,amountingto
about30,000tablets,groupedaccordingtosubject.
And,anEarlyArchaeologist!
Amanofthesouthernmarshes,Nabopolassar,releasedBabyloniafromAssyriandominationin625bce.
HissuccessorsincreasedtheirterritoryandorganisedbuildingprojectsatBabylon.Fromthattime,even
after the Achaemenids of Iran conquered Babylon in 539 bce and until 331 bce when Alexander
conquered Babylon, Babylon was the premier city of the world, more than 850 hectares, with a triple
wall,greatpalacesandtemples,azigguratorsteppedtower,andaprocessionalwaytotheritualcentre.
Its trading houses had widespread dealings and its mathematicians and astronomers made some new
discoveries.
Nabonidus was thelast ruler of independent Babylon. He writes that the god of Ur cameto him in a
dreamandorderedhimtoappointapriestesstotakechargeofthecultinthatancienttowninthedeep
south.Hewrites:
‘BecauseforaverylongtimetheofficeofHighPriestesshadbeenforgotten,hercharacteristicfeatures
nowhereindicated,Ibethoughtmyselfdayafterday…’
Then,hesays,hefoundthesteleofaveryearlykingwhomwetodaydatetoabout1150bceandsawon
that stele the carved image of the Priestess. He observed the clothing and the jewellery that was
depicted.ThisishowhewasabletodresshisdaughterforherconsecrationasPriestess.
Onanotheroccasion,NabonidussmenbroughttohimabrokenstatueinscribedwiththenameofSargon,
king of Akkad. (We know today that the latter ruled around 2370 bce.) Nabonidus, and indeed many
intellectuals, had heard of this great king of remote times. Nabonidus felt he had to repair the statue.
‘Because of my reverence for the gods and respect for kingship, he writes, ‘I summoned skilled
craftsmen,andreplacedthehead.’
Activity4
WhydoyouthinkAssurbanipalandNaboniduscherishedearly
Mesopotamiantraditions?
Exercises
Answerinbrief
1. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food
productionthatwerethecausesofearlyurbanisation?
2. Which of the following were necessary conditions and which the causes, of
earlyurbanisation,andwhichwouldyousayweretheoutcomeofthegrowthof
cities:
(a) highly productive agriculture, (b) water transport, (c) the lack of metal and
stone, (d) the division of labour, (e) the use of seals, (f) the military power of
kingsthatmadelabourcompulsory?
3.Whyweremobileanimalherdersnotnecessarilyathreattotownlife?
4.Whywouldtheearlytemplehavebeenmuchlikeahouse?
Answerinashortessay
5. Of the new institutions that came into being once city life had begun, which
wouldhavedependedontheinitiativeoftheking?
6.WhatdoancientstoriestellusaboutthecivilisationofMesopotamia?